Altair consensus changes and refactors (#2279)

## Proposed Changes

Implement the consensus changes necessary for the upcoming Altair hard fork.

## Additional Info

This is quite a heavy refactor, with pivotal types like the `BeaconState` and `BeaconBlock` changing from structs to enums. This ripples through the whole codebase with field accesses changing to methods, e.g. `state.slot` => `state.slot()`.


Co-authored-by: realbigsean <seananderson33@gmail.com>

consensus/types/presets/mainnet/altair.yaml

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+# Mainnet preset - Altair
+
+# Updated penalty values
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 3 * 2**24 (= 50,331,648)
+INACTIVITY_PENALTY_QUOTIENT_ALTAIR: 50331648
+# 2**6 (= 64)
+MIN_SLASHING_PENALTY_QUOTIENT_ALTAIR: 64
+# 2
+PROPORTIONAL_SLASHING_MULTIPLIER_ALTAIR: 2
+
+
+# Sync committee
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**9 (= 512)
+SYNC_COMMITTEE_SIZE: 512
+# 2**8 (= 256)
+EPOCHS_PER_SYNC_COMMITTEE_PERIOD: 256
+
+
+# Sync protocol
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 1
+MIN_SYNC_COMMITTEE_PARTICIPANTS: 1

consensus/types/presets/mainnet/phase0.yaml

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+# Mainnet preset - Phase0
+
+# Misc
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**6 (= 64)
+MAX_COMMITTEES_PER_SLOT: 64
+# 2**7 (= 128)
+TARGET_COMMITTEE_SIZE: 128
+# 2**11 (= 2,048)
+MAX_VALIDATORS_PER_COMMITTEE: 2048
+# See issue 563
+SHUFFLE_ROUND_COUNT: 90
+# 4
+HYSTERESIS_QUOTIENT: 4
+# 1 (minus 0.25)
+HYSTERESIS_DOWNWARD_MULTIPLIER: 1
+# 5 (plus 1.25)
+HYSTERESIS_UPWARD_MULTIPLIER: 5
+
+
+# Fork Choice
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**3 (= 8)
+SAFE_SLOTS_TO_UPDATE_JUSTIFIED: 8
+
+
+# Gwei values
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**0 * 10**9 (= 1,000,000,000) Gwei
+MIN_DEPOSIT_AMOUNT: 1000000000
+# 2**5 * 10**9 (= 32,000,000,000) Gwei
+MAX_EFFECTIVE_BALANCE: 32000000000
+# 2**0 * 10**9 (= 1,000,000,000) Gwei
+EFFECTIVE_BALANCE_INCREMENT: 1000000000
+
+
+# Time parameters
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**0 (= 1) slots 12 seconds
+MIN_ATTESTATION_INCLUSION_DELAY: 1
+# 2**5 (= 32) slots 6.4 minutes
+SLOTS_PER_EPOCH: 32
+# 2**0 (= 1) epochs 6.4 minutes
+MIN_SEED_LOOKAHEAD: 1
+# 2**2 (= 4) epochs 25.6 minutes
+MAX_SEED_LOOKAHEAD: 4
+# 2**6 (= 64) epochs ~6.8 hours
+EPOCHS_PER_ETH1_VOTING_PERIOD: 64
+# 2**13 (= 8,192) slots ~27 hours
+SLOTS_PER_HISTORICAL_ROOT: 8192
+# 2**2 (= 4) epochs 25.6 minutes
+MIN_EPOCHS_TO_INACTIVITY_PENALTY: 4
+
+
+# State list lengths
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**16 (= 65,536) epochs ~0.8 years
+EPOCHS_PER_HISTORICAL_VECTOR: 65536
+# 2**13 (= 8,192) epochs ~36 days
+EPOCHS_PER_SLASHINGS_VECTOR: 8192
+# 2**24 (= 16,777,216) historical roots, ~26,131 years
+HISTORICAL_ROOTS_LIMIT: 16777216
+# 2**40 (= 1,099,511,627,776) validator spots
+VALIDATOR_REGISTRY_LIMIT: 1099511627776
+
+
+# Reward and penalty quotients
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**6 (= 64)
+BASE_REWARD_FACTOR: 64
+# 2**9 (= 512)
+WHISTLEBLOWER_REWARD_QUOTIENT: 512
+# 2**3 (= 8)
+PROPOSER_REWARD_QUOTIENT: 8
+# 2**26 (= 67,108,864)
+INACTIVITY_PENALTY_QUOTIENT: 67108864
+# 2**7 (= 128) (lower safety margin at Phase 0 genesis)
+MIN_SLASHING_PENALTY_QUOTIENT: 128
+# 1 (lower safety margin at Phase 0 genesis)
+PROPORTIONAL_SLASHING_MULTIPLIER: 1
+
+
+# Max operations per block
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_PROPOSER_SLASHINGS: 16
+# 2**1 (= 2)
+MAX_ATTESTER_SLASHINGS: 2
+# 2**7 (= 128)
+MAX_ATTESTATIONS: 128
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_DEPOSITS: 16
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_VOLUNTARY_EXITS: 16

consensus/types/presets/minimal/altair.yaml

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+# Minimal preset - Altair
+
+# Updated penalty values
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 3 * 2**24 (= 50,331,648)
+INACTIVITY_PENALTY_QUOTIENT_ALTAIR: 50331648
+# 2**6 (= 64)
+MIN_SLASHING_PENALTY_QUOTIENT_ALTAIR: 64
+# 2
+PROPORTIONAL_SLASHING_MULTIPLIER_ALTAIR: 2
+
+
+# Sync committee
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# [customized]
+SYNC_COMMITTEE_SIZE: 32
+# [customized]
+EPOCHS_PER_SYNC_COMMITTEE_PERIOD: 8
+
+
+# Sync protocol
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 1
+MIN_SYNC_COMMITTEE_PARTICIPANTS: 1

consensus/types/presets/minimal/phase0.yaml

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+# Minimal preset - Phase0
+
+# Misc
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# [customized] Just 4 committees for slot for testing purposes
+MAX_COMMITTEES_PER_SLOT: 4
+# [customized] unsecure, but fast
+TARGET_COMMITTEE_SIZE: 4
+# 2**11 (= 2,048)
+MAX_VALIDATORS_PER_COMMITTEE: 2048
+# [customized] Faster, but unsecure.
+SHUFFLE_ROUND_COUNT: 10
+# 4
+HYSTERESIS_QUOTIENT: 4
+# 1 (minus 0.25)
+HYSTERESIS_DOWNWARD_MULTIPLIER: 1
+# 5 (plus 1.25)
+HYSTERESIS_UPWARD_MULTIPLIER: 5
+
+
+# Fork Choice
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**1 (= 1)
+SAFE_SLOTS_TO_UPDATE_JUSTIFIED: 2
+
+
+# Gwei values
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**0 * 10**9 (= 1,000,000,000) Gwei
+MIN_DEPOSIT_AMOUNT: 1000000000
+# 2**5 * 10**9 (= 32,000,000,000) Gwei
+MAX_EFFECTIVE_BALANCE: 32000000000
+# 2**0 * 10**9 (= 1,000,000,000) Gwei
+EFFECTIVE_BALANCE_INCREMENT: 1000000000
+
+
+# Time parameters
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**0 (= 1) slots 6 seconds
+MIN_ATTESTATION_INCLUSION_DELAY: 1
+# [customized] fast epochs
+SLOTS_PER_EPOCH: 8
+# 2**0 (= 1) epochs
+MIN_SEED_LOOKAHEAD: 1
+# 2**2 (= 4) epochs
+MAX_SEED_LOOKAHEAD: 4
+# [customized] higher frequency new deposits from eth1 for testing
+EPOCHS_PER_ETH1_VOTING_PERIOD: 4
+# [customized] smaller state
+SLOTS_PER_HISTORICAL_ROOT: 64
+# 2**2 (= 4) epochs
+MIN_EPOCHS_TO_INACTIVITY_PENALTY: 4
+
+
+# State list lengths
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# [customized] smaller state
+EPOCHS_PER_HISTORICAL_VECTOR: 64
+# [customized] smaller state
+EPOCHS_PER_SLASHINGS_VECTOR: 64
+# 2**24 (= 16,777,216) historical roots
+HISTORICAL_ROOTS_LIMIT: 16777216
+# 2**40 (= 1,099,511,627,776) validator spots
+VALIDATOR_REGISTRY_LIMIT: 1099511627776
+
+
+# Reward and penalty quotients
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**6 (= 64)
+BASE_REWARD_FACTOR: 64
+# 2**9 (= 512)
+WHISTLEBLOWER_REWARD_QUOTIENT: 512
+# 2**3 (= 8)
+PROPOSER_REWARD_QUOTIENT: 8
+# [customized] 2**25 (= 33,554,432)
+INACTIVITY_PENALTY_QUOTIENT: 33554432
+# [customized] 2**6 (= 64)
+MIN_SLASHING_PENALTY_QUOTIENT: 64
+# [customized] 2 (lower safety margin than Phase 0 genesis but different than mainnet config for testing)
+PROPORTIONAL_SLASHING_MULTIPLIER: 2
+
+
+# Max operations per block
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_PROPOSER_SLASHINGS: 16
+# 2**1 (= 2)
+MAX_ATTESTER_SLASHINGS: 2
+# 2**7 (= 128)
+MAX_ATTESTATIONS: 128
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_DEPOSITS: 16
+# 2**4 (= 16)
+MAX_VOLUNTARY_EXITS: 16